Medieval physicians, too, scrutinised the night skies and consulted elaborate hand-drawn charts before performing phlebotomy, the most prevalent health intervention until the 18th century. So meaningful were these cosmic events that every medieval European court had an in-house astrologer – and kings rarely took political decisions without first consulting them. Comets, eclipses and and conjunctions of planets were thought to foretell natural disasters or political coups. Sidereal movements – the movements of stars or other heavenly bodies – could also influence the person’s mind and body. Someone born under Mars might grow up to be belligerent, while someone born under Venus would become lascivious. It was generally understood that the planets and stars under which a person is born would exert influence over a person’s health and personality. Belief in astrology was almost universal. In the middle ages, stars were laden with meaning and, with no light pollution in the sky, often easier to see with the naked eye than they are now. After diagnosis, one of the most important treatments was bloodletting, for which physicians used detailed astrological charts. Their diagnostic techniques were largely limited to examining a patient’s urine: they could match the colour of the urine to that on a chart, such as one now in the Bodleian Library, which offers an alarming spectrum of hues. Clark, Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, State University of New York at Binghamton and The Reaissance Society of America (1989.Medieval doctors had to acquire a range of skills including an ability to read Latin texts, a working knowledge of the bodily “humours” and an understanding of the rudiments of blood circulation.